Carroll’s Minimalist Theory

A) Description

The Minimalist theory of J.M. Carroll focuses on the instructional design of training materials for computer users and has been "extensively applied to the design of computer documentation" (e.g., Nowaczyk & James, 1993, van der Meij, & Carroll, 1995, as cited in Kearsley 1994d). It is based upon studies of people learning a wide range of computer applications including word processors and databases.
As Kearsley (1994d) explains, this theory suggests that:

1. All learning activities should be meaningful and self-contained.
2. Activities should exploit the learner's prior experience and knowledge.
3. Learners should be given realistic projects as quickly as possible.
4. Instruction should permit self-directed reasoning and improvising.
5. Training materials and activities should provide for error recognition and use errors as learning opportunities.
6. There should be a close linkage between training and the actual system because "new users are always learning computer methods in the context of specific preexisting goals and expectations" (Carroll 1990, as cited in Kearsley 1994d).

The critical idea behind Carroll's Minimalist theory is that course designers must "minimize the extent to which instructional materials obstruct learning and focus the design on activities that support learner-directed activity and accomplishment" (Kearsley 1994d).
B) Practical Application
In applying Carroll’s Minimalist theory, Kearsley (1994d) recommends the following:

1. Allow learners to start immediately on meaningful tasks.
2. Minimize the amount of reading and other passive forms of training by allowing users to fill in the gaps themselves
3. Include error recognition and recovery activities in the instruction
4. Make all learning activities self-contained and independent of sequence.

EXAMPLE 1
The following is an example of a guided exploration approach to learning how to use a word processor (Carroll 1990, chapter 5, as cited in Kearsley 1994d).
Applying the principles of Carroll's Minimalist theory, a 94-page training manual is replaced by 25 cards. Each card is self contained and includes a meaningful task and error recognition information. The cards do not provide complete step-by-step specifications but only key ideas or hints about what to do. Kearsley reports that "in an experiment that compared the use of the cards versus the manual, users learned the task in about half the time with the cards."
EXAMPLE 2
The following example illustrates the redesign of a Web page using Carroll’s Minimalist theory and other related web design strategies:

• Problem: Below is a screen shot of The WINDeX Search Engine located at http://windex.daci.net. This site allows software developers to submit shareware and freeware to be stored in their database. This page however has four serious design flaws: (a) the banners occupy too much valuable space at the top of the screen; (b) "The Windex Index" image banner runs a lake ripple Java applet which is highly distracting; (c) the lake ripple Java applet significantly increases the time it takes to download the page; (d) the white text on a blue background is difficult to read, especially considering that the site uses four colors for text: red, blue, white and black.

·         Solution: (a) Carroll advises that learners should be allowed to start right away on meaningful tasks. Jones and Farquhar (1997) advise that in web-design, important information should be kept on the top of the page. Considering this advice, to improve this web page, the banners should be designed to occupy less space and the user input forms should be moved up higher so users don't have to scroll as much. (b) (c) (d) Carroll advises that web-design should minimize the extent to which instructional materials obstruct learning. Gillani & Relan (1997) advise that frames should be kept simple and be consistent in design of text, graphics and sound to limit cognitive overload. Similarly, Guay (1995, as cited in Fahy 1999) advises that Web pages should reduce clutter and download in 30 seconds or less with a 14.4 modem. Considering this advice, to improve the design of this web page, the Java applet should be removed as it greatly increases the time to download the entire page without adding to its usability. Furthermore, the ripple effect distracts from the content of the site and is just plain "annoying." Content that is not essential, such as the "redesign notice" should also be removed or shrunk in size. Furthermore, the range of text colors should be reduced and a more suitable background chosen to improve readability.

C) Related Theories, Pedagogical Practices and Practical Web-Design Strategies

1. Keep important information at the top of the page. When learners come to a page, they immediately scan for interesting and important information. Good web-design demands that you give your learners the information they want right away and in a hurry. Large graphics at the top of a page may be aesthetically pleasing, but take up too much of the immediate viewable space to be considered instructionally useful (Jones and Farquhar 1997).
2. Keep frames simple and be consistent in design of text, graphics and sound to limit cognitive overload. Guay advises that "cognitive bandwidth should be minimized to ensure users easily and accurately grasp the message" (as cited in Fahy 1999, 191). He also recommends that graphics and other enhancements should "never obscure the central message of the page" (p. 191). Jones and Farquhar (1997) advise that background to a display should not compete with or obscure the text. Simiarly Gillani & Relan 1997, 236 maintain that "simplicity and consistency eliminates cognitive overload." Thus, multimedia components should be used "to reinforce rather than distract from learning."
3. Keep pages short so learners don’t have to scroll. Research on the Web suggests that "users do not like to scroll" (Nielsen 1996, as cited in Jones & Farquhar 1997, 243). Guay (1995, as cited in Fahy 1999, 191) agrees with this and advises that "each page should fit on the screen without scrolling." West (1998, as cited in Fahy 1999, 192) similarly advises that "the requirement for the user to scroll down in Web-based documents should be kept to a minimum, as many users will not scroll more than 3 times before abandoning a site." West also estimates that readers give only between 7 and 15 seconds to assess the probable usefulness of a site before leaving it. It should be noted that "the problem with making pages short is that people may choose to print out certain pieces of information, or download the entire contents of a group of pages. This [problem can be solved] by combining all of the pages into a single document that is labeled as such" (Jones and Farquar, 1997, 243). A print button can be provided so that users can eaisly print longer material for off-screen reading.
4. Keep pages uncluttered by extracting unnecessary elements. Broadbents’ theory of single-channel processing states that "humans are capable of processing information through only one channel at a time and that it is not possible to process two channels simultaneously"(Hsia 1968, as cited in Szabo 1998, 32). If this were to happen, audio and visual stimuli would arrive at the central nervous system simultaneously, causing the information to jam, and lead to poorer retention of material (Broadbent 1958, as cited in Szabo 1998, 32). Guay (1995 as cited in Fahy 1999, 192) recommends that "each page should be uncluttered, readable, and balanced."
5. Pages should download in 30 seconds or less with 14.4 modem. Guay advises that "physical bandwidth should be minimized to ensure acceptable access and response times" (1995 as cited in Fahy 1999, 191). Special consideration should be given to logos, banners, .pdf files, audio, and video to make sure that these files do not slow down the site too much. Guay also suggests that tagging graphics (in HTML) with vertical and horizontal size can speed download. Commercial graphics tools such as Adobe ImageReady 2.0 can also reduce graphics size by among other things reducing the color pallet.
6. Screen excess information. Good design, as Carroll recommends, must reduce excess information and allow learners to fill in the gaps. In support of this, Dede (1996, 13) maintains that the curriculum is "overcrowded with low-level information" and as a result, "teachers [must] frantically race through required material, helping students memorize factual data to be regurgitated on mandated, standardized tests." Dede also advises that "the core skill for today’s workplace is not foraging for date, but filtering a plethora of incoming information." He adds that as we increasingly are required to dive into a sea of information we must master the ability to immerse ourselves in data "to harvest patterns of knowledge just as fish extract oxygen from water via their gills" (p. 6).
7. Structure materials as topical modules. This "simplifies selective reuse of course materials" (Butler 1997, 422).
8. Strive for quality not quantity. Rockley (1997, as cited in Fahy 1999, 196-197) gives the following advice for the planning and management of Web-based resources:

• Design small. Make what you have effective, then add to it. Don’t attempt to do everything at once.
• Keep effects simple. Assure effects ADD to the message/content.
• Map out the whole site. Both for development and maintenance.
• Plan for growth. Anticipate and direct it.
• Get feedback from users. And pay attention to it.
• Test any outside links regularly. Don’t’ link to sites which do not appear to be will maintained or stable.
• Give only one person edit privileges. Only one person should have site maintenance responsibilities.

Don’t post any part of a site while it is still under construction. Everything on your site should work now. Instead of "under construction, put up announcements of the expected availability of "coming" or "new" features.